The following
annotated chapter outline will help you review the major topics covered in this
chapter.
II. |
European Empires in the
Americas |
A. |
Western European empires were marked by maritime expansion. |
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1. |
Spaniards in
Caribbean,
then on to Aztec and Inca empires |
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2. |
Portuguese in
Brazil |
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3. |
British, French, and Dutch colonies in
North America |
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4. |
Europeans controlled most of the
Americas
by the
mid-nineteenth century |
B. |
The European Advantage |
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1. |
geography: European Atlantic states were well
positioned for involvement in the
Americas |
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2. |
need: Chinese and Indians had such rich
markets in the
Indian Ocean that there wasn’t
much incentive to go beyond |
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3. |
marginality: Europeans were aware of their
marginal position in Eurasian commerce and wanted to change it |
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4. |
rivalry: interstate rivalry drove rulers to
compete |
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5. |
merchants: growing merchant class wanted
direct access to Asian wealth |
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6. |
wealth and status: colonies were an opportunity
for impoverished nobles and commoners |
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7. |
religion: |
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a. |
crusading zeal |
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b. |
persecuted minorities looking for more
freedom |
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8. |
European states and trading companies
mobilized resources well |
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a. |
seafaring technology |
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b. |
iron, gunpowder weapons, and horses gave
Europeans an initial advantage over people in the
Americas |
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9. |
Rivalries within the
Americas
provided allies for European invaders |
C. |
The Great Dying—the demographic collapse of Native American societies |
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1. |
pre-Columbian
Western
Hemisphere had a population of perhaps 60 million–80 million |
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2. |
no immunity to
Old World
diseases |
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3. |
Europeans brought European and African
diseases |
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a. |
mortality rate of up to 90 percent among
Native American populations |
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b. |
native population nearly vanished in the
Caribbean |
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c. |
Central
Mexico
: population dropped from 10
million–20 million to around 1 million by 1650 |
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d. |
similar mortality in
North
America |
D. |
The Columbian Exchange |
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1. |
massive native mortality created a labor
shortage in the
Americas |
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2. |
migrant Europeans and African slaves created
entirely new societies |
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3. |
American food crops (e.g., corn, potatoes,
and cassava) spread widely in the
Eastern Hemisphere |
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a. |
potatoes especially allowed enormous
population growth |
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b. |
corn and sweet potatoes were important in
China
and
Africa |
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4. |
exchange with the
Americas
reshaped the world economy |
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a. |
importation of millions of African slaves to
the
Americas |
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b. |
new and lasting link among Africa, Europe,
and the
Americas |
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5. |
network of communication, migration, trade,
transfer of plants and animals (including microbes) is called “the Columbian
exchange” |
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a. |
the Atlantic world connected four continents |
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b. |
Western Europeans got most of the rewards |
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III. |
Comparing Colonial Societies
in the
Americas |
A. |
Europeans did not just conquer and govern established societies: they
created wholly new societies. |
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1. |
all were shaped by mercantilism—theory that
governments should encourage exports and accumulate bullion to serve their
countries |
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2. |
colonies should provide closed markets for
the mother country’s manufactured goods |
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3. |
but colonies differed widely, depending on
native cultures and the sorts of economy that were established |
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4. |
mercantilist thinking thus fueled the
European wars and colonial rivalries around the world in the early modern era |
B. |
In the Lands of the Aztecs and the Incas |
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1. |
Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires
(early sixteenth century) |
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a. |
the most wealthy, urbanized, and populous
regions of the
Western Hemisphere |
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b. |
within a century, the Spaniards established
major cities, universities, and a religious and bureaucratic infrastructure |
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2. |
economic basis of the colonial society was
commercial agriculture and mining (gold and silver) |
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3. |
rise of a distinctive social order |
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a. |
replicated some of the Spanish class
hierarchy |
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b. |
accommodated Indians, Africans, and racially
mixed people |
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c. |
Spaniards were at the top, increasingly
wanted a large measure of self-government from the Spanish Crown |
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d. |
emergence of mestizo (mixed-race) population |
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e. |
gross abuse and exploitation of the Indians |
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f. |
more racial fluidity than in
North America |
C. |
Colonies of Sugar |
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1. |
lowland
Brazil
and the
Caribbean developed a different
society |
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a. |
regions had not been home to great
civilizations and didn’t have great mineral wealth until the 1690s |
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b. |
but sugar was in high demand in
Europe |
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c. |
these colonies produced almost solely for
export |
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2. |
Arabs introduced large-scale sugar production
to the
Mediterranean |
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a. |
Europeans transferred it to Atlantic islands
and
Americas |
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b. |
Portuguese on Brazilian coast dominated the
world sugar market 1570–1670 |
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c. |
then British, French, and Dutch in the
Caribbean broke the Portuguese monopoly |
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3. |
sugar transformed
Brazil
and the
Caribbean |
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a. |
production was labor intensive, worked best
on large scale |
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b. |
can be called the first modern industry |
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c. |
had always been produced with massive use of
slave labor |
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d. |
Indians of the area were almost totally wiped
out or fled |
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e. |
planters turned to African slaves—at least 80
percent of all African captives enslaved in the
Americas
ended up in
Brazil
and the
Caribbean |
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4. |
much more of Brazilian and
Caribbean
society was of African descent |
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5. |
large mixed-race population provided much of
urban skilled workforce and supervisors in sugar industry |
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6. |
plantation complex based on African slavery
spread to southern parts of
North America |
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a. |
but in
North America,
European women came earlier |
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b. |
result was less racial mixing, less tolerance
toward mixed blood |
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c. |
sharply defined racial system evolved |
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d. |
slavery was less harsh |
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D. |
Settler Colonies in
North America |
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1. |
a different sort of colonial society emerged
in British colonies of
New England,
New York, and
Pennsylvania |
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a. |
British got into the game late; got the
unpromising lands |
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b. |
but British society was changing more rapidly
than Catholic Spain |
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2. |
many British colonists were trying to escape
elements of European society |
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3. |
British settlers were more numerous; by 1750,
they outnumbered Spaniards in
New World by
five to one |
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a. |
by 1776, 90 percent of population of North
American colonies was European |
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b. |
Indians were killed off by disease and
military policy |
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c. |
small-scale farming didn’t need slaves |
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4. |
England
was mostly Protestant;
didn’t proselytize like the Catholics |
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5. |
British colonies developed traditions of
local self-government |
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a. |
Britain
didn’t impose an elaborate bureaucracy like
Spain |
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b. |
British civil war (seventeenth century)
distracted government from involvement in the colonies |
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6. |
North America gradually became dominant, more
developed than
South America |
IV. |
The Steppes and
Siberia: The Making of a Russian Empire |
A. |
A small Russian state centered on
Moscow
began to emerge ca. 1500. |
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1. |
Moscow
began to conquer neighboring cities |
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2. |
over three centuries grew into a massive
empire |
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3. |
early expansion into the grasslands to south
and east was for security against nomads |
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4. |
expansion into
Siberia
was a matter of opportunity (especially furs), not threat |
B. |
Experiencing the Russian Empire |
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1. |
conquest was made possible by modern weapons
and organization |
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2. |
conquest brought devastating epidemics,
especially in remote areas of
Siberia—locals
had no immunity to smallpox and measles |
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3. |
pressure to convert to Christianity |
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4. |
large-scale settlement of Russians in the new
lands, where they outnumbered the native population (e.g., in
Siberia) |
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5. |
discouragement of pastoralism |
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6. |
many natives were Russified |
C. |
Russians and Empire |
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1. |
with imperial expansion, Russians became a
smaller proportion of the overall population |
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2. |
rich agricultural lands, furs, and minerals
helped make
Russia
a great power by the eighteenth century |
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3. |
became an Asian power as well as a European
one |
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4. |
long-term Russian identity problem |
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a. |
expansion made
Russia
a very militarized state |
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b. |
reinforced autocracy |
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5. |
colonization experience was different from
the
Americas |
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a. |
conquest of territories with which
Russia
had long
interacted |
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b. |
conquest took place at the same time as
development of the Russian state |
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c. |
the Russian Empire remained intact until 1991 |
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V. |
Asian Empires |
A. |
Asian empires were regional, not global. |
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1. |
creation of Asian empires did not include
massive epidemics |
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2. |
did not fundamentally transform their
homelands like interaction with the
Americas
and
Siberia did for European powers |
B. |
Making
China
an Empire |
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1. |
Qing dynasty (1644–1912) launched enormous
imperial expansion to the north and west |
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2. |
nomads of the north and west were very
familiar to the Chinese |
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a. |
80-year-long Chinese conquest (1680–1760) |
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b. |
motivated by security fears; reaction to
Zunghar state |
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3. |
China
evolved into a Central Asian
empire |
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4. |
conquered territory was ruled separately from
the rest of
China
through the Court of Colonial Affairs |
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a. |
considerable use of local elites to govern |
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b. |
officials often imitated Chinese ways |
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c. |
but government did not try to assimilate
conquered peoples |
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d. |
little Chinese settlement in the conquered
regions |
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5. |
Russian and Chinese rule impoverished
Central Asia and turned it into a backward region |
C. |
Muslims and Hindus in the Mughal Empire |
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1. |
Mughals united much of
India
between
1526 and 1707 |
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2. |
the Mughal Empire’s most important divide was
religious: 20 percent of the population were Muslims, while most of the rest
were Hindus |
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3. |
Emperor Akbar (r. 1556–1605) attempted
serious accommodation of the Hindu majority |
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a. |
brought many Hindus into the
political-military elite |
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b. |
imposed a policy of toleration |
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c. |
abolished payment of jizya by non-Muslims |
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d. |
created a state cult that stressed loyalty to
the emperor |
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e. |
Akbar and his successors encouraged a hybrid
Indian-Persian-Turkic culture |
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4. |
Mughal toleration provoked reaction among
some Muslims |
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a. |
Emperor Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707) reversed
Mughal policy, tried to impose Islamic supremacy |
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b. |
Aurangzeb banned sati (widow burning), music and dance at court, various vices |
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c. |
destruction of some Hindu temples |
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d. |
reimposition of jizya |
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5. |
Aurangzeb’s policy provoked Hindu reaction |
D. |
Muslims, Christians, and the
Ottoman Empire |
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1. |
the
Ottoman Empire
was the Islamic world’s most important empire in the early modern period |
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2. |
long conflict (1534–1639) between Sunni
Ottomans and Shia Safavids |
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3. |
the
Ottoman Empire
was the site of a significant cross-cultural encounter |
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a. |
in
Anatolia,
most of the conquered Christians converted to Islam |
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b. |
in the Balkans, Christian subjects mostly
remained Christian |
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4. |
in the Balkans, many Christians welcomed
Ottoman conquest |
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a. |
Ottoman taxed less and were less oppressive |
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b. |
Christian churches received considerable
autonomy |
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c. |
Balkan elites were accepted among the Ottoman
elite without conversion |
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5. |
Jewish refugees from
Spain
had more opportunities in the
Ottoman Empire |
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6. |
devshirme:
tribute of boys paid by Christian Balkan communities |
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a. |
boys were converted to Islam, trained to
serve the state |
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b. |
the devshirme was a means of upward social mobility |
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7. |
the Ottoman state threatened Christendom |
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8. |
some Europeans admired Ottoman rule |
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a. |
philosopher Jean Bodin (sixteenth century)
praised Ottoman religious tolerance |
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b. |
European merchants evaded papal bans on
selling firearms to the Turks |
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c. |
Ottoman women enjoyed relative freedom |
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