Chapter 18

Chapter 18: Chapter Outline

The following annotated chapter outline will help you review the major topics covered in this chapter.

Instructions: Review the outline to recall events and their relationships as presented in the chapter. Return to skim any sections that seem unfamiliar.

I.	Opening Vignette
A.	Mahatma Gandhi criticized industrialization as economic exploitation.
		1.	few people have agreed with him
		2.	every kind of society has embraced at least the idea of industrialization since it started in Great Britain in the late eighteenth century
B.	The Industrial Revolution was one of the most significant elements of Europe’s modern transformation.
		1.	initial industrialization period was 1750–1900
		2.	drew on the Scientific Revolution
		3.	utterly transformed European society
		4.	pushed Europe into a position of global dominance
		5.	was more fundamental than any breakthrough since the Agricultural Revolution

II.	Explaining the Industrial Revolution
A.	The global context for the Industrial Revolution lies in a very substantial increase in human numbers from about 375 million people in 1400 to about 1 billion in the early nineteenth century. Accompanying this growth was the utilization of fossil fuels, which made unprecedented proportions of energy available for human use. Access to this new energy gave rise to an enormously increased output of goods and services.
		1.	use of new energy sources (steam engines, petroleum engines)
		2.	in Britain, output increased some fiftyfold in the period 1750–1900
		3.	based on a “culture of innovation”
		4.	before 1750/1800, the major Eurasian civilizations were about equal technologically
		5.	greatest breakthrough was the steam engine
				a.	soon spread from the textile industry to many other types of production
				b.	agriculture was transformed
		6.	spread from Britain to Western Europe, then to the United States, Russia, and Japan
B.	Why Europe?
		1.	many scholars have debated why industrialization appeared first in Great Britain, and why it started in the late nineteenth century
		2.	earlier views attributing it to something unique in European society or culture have been challenged by:
				a.	the fact that other parts of the world (e.g., China, the Islamic world) have had times of great technological and scientific flourishing
				b.	the fact that Europe did not enjoy any overall economic advantage as late as 1750
				c.	the rapid spread of industrial techniques to much of the world in the past 250 years
		3.	contemporary historians tend to see the Industrial Revolution as a rather quick and unexpected eruption in the period 1750–1850
		4.	why it might have occurred in Europe
				a.	some patterns of European internal development favored innovation
				b.	European rulers had an unusual alliance with merchant classes
		5.	other societies developed market-based economies by the eighteenth century (e.g., Japan, India, and China)
				a.	but Europe was at the center of the most varied exchange network
				b.	contact with culturally different peoples encouraged change and innovation
				c.	the Americas provided silver, raw materials, and foods
C.	Why Britain?
		1.	Britain was the most commercialized of Europe’s larger countries
				a.	small farmers had been pushed out (enclosure movement)
				b.	market production fueled by a number of agricultural innovations
				c.	guilds had largely disappeared
		2.	ready supply of industrial workers with few options
		3.	British aristocrats were interested in commerce
		4.	British commerce was worldwide
		5.	British political life encouraged commercialization and economic innovation
				a.	policy of religious toleration (established 1688) welcomed people with technical skills regardless of faith
				b.	British government imposed tariffs to protect its businessmen
				c.	it was easy to form companies and forbid workers’ unions
				d.	unified internal market, thanks to road and canal system
				e.	patent laws protected inventors’ interests
				f.	checks on royal authority gave more room for private enterprise
		6.	emphasis of the Scientific Revolution was different in Great Britain
				a.	on the continent: logic, deduction, mathematical reasoning
				b.	in Britain: observation and experiment, measurement, mechanical
				c.	in Britain, artisan/craftsman inventors were in close contact with scientists and entrepreneurs
				d.	the British Royal Society (founded 1660) took the role of promoting “useful knowledge”
		7.	Britain had plenty of coal and iron ore, often conveniently located
		8.	Britain was not devastated by the Napoleonic wars
		9.	social change was possible without revolution

III.	The First Industrial Society
A.	There was a massive increase in output as industrialization took hold in Britain.
		1.	rapid development of railroad systems
		2.	much of the dramatic increase was in mining, manufacturing, and services
		3.	agriculture became less important by comparison (in 1891, agriculture generated only 8 percent of British national income)
		4.	vast transformation of daily life
				a.	it was a traumatic process for many
				b.	different people were affected in different ways
B.	The British Aristocracy
		1.	landowning aristocrats had little material loss in the Industrial Revolution
		2.	but the aristocracy declined, because urban wealth became more important
				a.	many businessmen, manufacturers, and bankers were enriched
				b.	aristocrats had declining political clout
				c.	by 1900, businessmen led the major political parties
		3.	titled nobles retained great social prestige and personal wealth
				a.	many found an outlet in Britain’s colonial possessions
C.	The Middle Classes
		1.	the middle classes had the most obvious gains from industrialization
		2.	upper middle class: some became extremely wealthy, bought into aristocratic life
		3.	middle class: large numbers of smaller businessmen and professionals
				a.	politically liberal
				b.	stood for thrift, hard work, rigid morals, and cleanliness
				c.	Samuel Smiles, Self-Help (1859): individuals are responsible for their own destiny
				d.	middle-class women were more frequently cast as homemakers, wives, and mothers; as the moral center of family life; and as managers of consumption
		4.	lower middle class: service sector workers (clerks, secretaries, etc.)
				a.	by 1900, they were around 20 percent of Britain’s population
				b.	employment opportunities for women as well as men
D.	The Laboring Classes
		1.	in the nineteenth century, about 70 percent of Britons were workers
		2.	laboring classes suffered most/benefited least from industrialization
		3.	rapid urbanization
				a.	by 1851, a majority of Britain’s population was urban
				b.	by 1900, London was the largest city in the world (6 million)
		4.	horrible urban conditions
				a.	vast overcrowding
				b.	inadequate sanitation and water supplies
				c.	epidemics
				d.	few public services or open spaces
				e.	little contact between the rich and the poor
		5.	industrial factories offered a very different work environment
				a.	long hours, low wages, and child labor were typical for the poor
				b.	what was new was the routine and monotony of work, direct supervision, discipline
				c.	industrial work was insecure
				d.	many girls and young women worked
E.	Social Protest
		1.	“friendly societies,” especially of artisans, for self-help were common
		2.	other skilled artisans sometimes wrecked machinery and burned mills
		3.	some joined political movements, aimed to enfranchise working-class men
		4.	trade unions were legalized in 1824
				a.	growing numbers of factory workers joined them
				b.	fought for better wages and working conditions
				c.	at first, upper classes feared them
		5.	socialist ideas spread gradually
				a.	Karl Marx (1818–1883) laid out a full ideology of socialism, predicting that revolution would lead to the inevitable collapse of industrial capitalism and result in a classless socialist society
				b.	socialist ideas were attractive among more radical trade unionists and some middle-class intellectuals in the late nineteenth century
		6.	British working-class movement remained moderate
				a.	material conditions for workers improved in second half of the century
				b.	capitalists and impoverished working class didn’t polarize because of the large middle and lower middle class
				c.	workers bettered their standard of living
		7.	but immense inequalities remained
		8.	by 1900, Britain was in economic decline relative to newly

IV.	Variations on a Theme: Comparing Industrialization in the United States and Russia
A.	The Industrial Revolution soon spread to continental Western Europe.
		1.	by 1900, it was established in the United States, Russia, and Japan
		2.	industrialization had broadly similar outcomes wherever it was established
				a.	aristocratic, artisanal, and peasant classes declined
				b.	middle-class women withdrew from paid labor altogether
				c.	establishment of trade unions and socialist movements
		3.	but the spread of industrialization was affected by the cultures of the lands where it was established, pace and timing of industrialization, nature of major industries, role of the state, political expression of social conflict, etc.
				a.	French industrialization was slower, perhaps less disruptive
				b.	Germany focused at first on heavy industry
		4.	variations are most apparent in the cases of the United States and Russia
B.	The United States: Industrialization without Socialism
		1.	American industrialization began with New England textiles (1820s)
		2.	explosive growth after the Civil War
				a.	by 1914, the United States was the world’s leading industrial power
				b.	European countries provided about one-third of capital investment financing U.S. growth
		3.	U.S. government played an important role through tax breaks, land grants to railroads, laws making formation of corporations easy, absence of overt regulation
		4.	pioneering of mass production techniques
		5.	creation of a “culture of consumption” through advertising, catalogs, and department stores
		6.	self-made industrialists became cultural heroes (Ford, Carnegie, Rockefeller)
		7.	serious social divisions rose
				a.	growing gap between rich and poor
				b.	constant labor of the working class
				c.	creation of vast slums
				d.	growing labor protest
				e.	no major socialist movement emerged in the United States, due to conservatism of American unions, heterogeneity of U.S. population, American workers’ higher standard of living
				f.	“populists” denounced corporate interests
				g.	Progressives were more successful, especially after 1900
				h.	socialism was labeled as fundamentally “un-American”
C.	Russia: Industrialization and Revolution
		1.	Russia was an absolute monarchy, with the greatest state control of anywhere in the Western world
				a.	in 1900: no national parliament, no legal political parties, no nationwide elections
				b.	dominated by a titled nobility (many highly Westernized)
				c.	until 1861, most Russians were serfs
		2.	in Russia, the state, not society, usually initiated change
				a.	Peter the Great (r. 1689–1725) was an early example of “transformation from above”
				b.	Catherine the Great (r. 1762–1796) also worked to Europeanize Russian culture and intellectual life
				c.	the state directed freeing of the serfs in 1861
				d.	the state set out to improve Russia’s economic and industrial backwardness
		3.	Russian Industrial Revolution was launched by the 1890s
				a.	focused on railroads and heavy industry
				b.	substantial foreign investment
				c.	industry was concentrated in a few major cities
				d.	fewer but larger factories than was typical in Western Europe
		4.	growing middle class disliked Russia’s deep conservatism, sought a greater role in political life
				a.	but they were dependent on the state for contracts and jobs
				b.	also relied on the state to suppress worker radicalism
		5.	Russian working class (only about 5 percent of the population) rapidly radicalized
				a.	harsh conditions
				b.	no legal outlet for grievances
				c.	large-scale strikes
		6.	Marxist socialism appealed to some educated Russians, gave them hope for the future
				a.	founded the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party (1898)
				b.	got involved in workers’ education, union organizing, and revolutionary action
		7.	major insurrection broke out in 1905, after defeat in war by Japan
				a.	in Moscow and St. Petersburg, workers went on strike, created their own representative councils (“soviets”)
				b.	peasant uprisings, student demonstrations
				c.	non-Russian nationalities revolted
				d.	military mutiny
				e.	brutally suppressed, but forced the tsar’s regime to make reforms
		8.	limited political reforms failed to pacify the radicals or bring stability
				a.	growing belief that only a revolution would help
				b.	World War I provided the revolutionary moment
		9.	Russian Revolution broke out in 1917
				a.	brought the most radical of the socialist groups to power—the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Lenin)
`				b.	only in Russia did industrialization lead to violent social revolution

V.	The Industrial Revolution and Latin America in the Nineteenth Century
A.	Beyond Europe and North America, only Japan underwent major industrialization in the nineteenth century.
		1.	elsewhere, only modest experiments in industry
		2.	did not transform societies
		3.	nonindustrialized societies still felt the impact of European and North American developments
B.	After Independence in Latin America
		1.	the struggle for independence in Latin America took a long time and was very destructive
		2.	the four vice-royalties of Spanish America became eighteen separate countries
		3.	international wars hindered development of the new nations
				a.	Mexico lost vast territories to the United States (1846–1848)
				b.	Paraguay was devastated by war (1864–1870)
		4.	political life was highly unstable
				a.	conservatives tried to maintain the old status quo
				b.	liberals attacked the Church, sought some social reforms, preferred federalism to a centralized government system
				c.	often, military strongmen (caudillos) gained power
				d.	states ran through multiple constitutions
		5.	independence brought little fundamental change to social life
				a.	slavery was abolished (though not until late 1880s in Brazil and Cuba)
				b.	most legal distinctions between racial categories were abolished
				c.	but creole whites remained overwhelmingly in control of productive economic resources
				d.	small middle class allowed social mobility for a few
				e.	the vast majority were impoverished
C.	Facing the World Economy
		1.	second half of the nineteenth century: greater stability, integration into world economy
		2.	rapid growth of Latin American exports to industrializing countries
				a.	exported food products and raw materials
				b.	imported textiles, machinery, tools, weapons, luxury goods
		3.	major investment of European and U.S. capital in Latin America
D.	Becoming like Europe?
		1.	rapid population increase
		2.	rapid urbanization
		3.	actively sought European immigrants
		4.	few people benefited from the export boom
				a.	upper-class landowners did very well
				b.	middle class grew some
				c.	but over 90 percent of the population was still lower-class
		5.	industrial workers made up a modest segment of the lower class
				a.	attempted unions and strikes
				b.	harshly repressed
		6.	most of the poor remained rural
		7.	only in Mexico did conditions provoke a nationwide revolution
				a.	overthrow of the dictator Porfirio Díaz (1876–1911)
				b.	major, bloody conflict (1910–1920)
				c.	huge peasant armies
				d.	transformed Mexico
		8.	export boom did not cause a thorough Industrial Revolution in Latin America
				a.	there was little internal market for manufactured goods
				b.	rich landowners and cattlemen had little incentive to invest in manufacturing
				c.	governments supported free trade, so cheaper and higher-quality foreign goods were available than could be made at home
				d.	instead, economic growth was dependent on Europe and North America

VI.	Reflections: History and Horse Races
A.	Historians are fascinated by historic “firsts.”
B.	But a focus on “firsts” can be misleading.
		1.	most “first achievements” in history were not intentional
		2.	the Industrial Revolution was certainly an “unexpected outcome of converging circumstances”
C.	Europeans have used their development of industrialization to claim an innate superiority.
		1.	it’s important to emphasize the unexpectedness of the Industrial Revolution
		2.	spread of industrialization around the world diminishes the importance of the “why Europe?” question
		3.	industrialization will increasingly be seen as a global process