Chapter 19: Chapter Outline
The following
annotated chapter outline will help you review the major topics covered in this
chapter.
Instructions:Review the outline to
recall events and their relationships as presented in the chapter. Return to
skim any sections that seem unfamiliar.
I. | Opening Vignette |
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A. | Japanese history textbooks became controversial around 2000, with the Chinese expressing outrage over what they regarded as a whitewashing of Japanese offenses against China. |
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1. | the controversy reflects Japan’s surprising rise to world importance, which started in the mid-nineteenth century |
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2. | both Japan and China had to face the threat of European dominance |
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B. | Most peoples of Asia, Middle East, Africa, and Latin America had to deal in some way with European imperialism as well as with internal challenges. |
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C. | This chapter focuses on societies that faced internal crises while maintaining formal independence. |
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D. | Four main dimensions of European imperialism confronted these societies: |
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1. | military might and political ambitions of rival European states |
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2. | involvement in a new world economy that radiated from Europe |
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3. | influence of aspects of traditional European culture (e.g., language, religion, literature) |
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4. | engagement with the culture of modernity |
II. | The External Challenge: European Industry and Empire |
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A. | The nineteenth century was Europe’s greatest age of global expansion. |
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1. | became the center of the world economy |
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2. | millions of Europeans moved to regions beyond Europe |
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3. | explorers and missionaries reached nearly everywhere |
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4. | much of the world became part of European colonies |
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B. | New Motives, New Means |
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1. | the Industrial Revolution fueled much of Europe’s expansion |
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a. | demand for raw materials and agricultural products |
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b. | need for markets to sell European products |
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c. | European capitalists often invested money abroad |
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d. | foreign markets kept workers within Europe employed |
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2. | growth of mass nationalism in Europe made imperialism broadly popular |
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a. | Italy and Germany unified by 1871 |
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b. | colonies were a status symbol |
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3. | industrial-age developments made overseas expansion possible |
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a. | steamships |
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b. | underwater telegraph |
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c. | quinine |
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d. | breech-loading rifles and machine guns |
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C. | New Perceptions of the “Other” |
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1. | in the past, Europeans had largely defined others in religious terms |
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a. | but had also adopted many foreign ideas and techniques |
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b. | mingled more freely with Asian and African elites |
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c. | had even seen technologically simple peoples at times as “noble savages” |
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2. | the industrial age promoted a secular arrogance among Europeans |
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a. | was sometimes combined with a sense of religious superiority |
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b. | Europeans increasingly despised other cultures |
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c. | African societies lost status |
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d. | new kind of racism, expressed in terms of modern science |
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3. | sense of responsibility to the “weaker races” |
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a. | duty to civilize them |
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b. | bringing them education, health care, Christianity, good government, etc., was regarded as “progress” and “civilization” |
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4. | social Darwinism: an effort to apply Darwin’s evolutionary theory to human history |
III. | Reversal of Fortune: China’s Century of Crisis |
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A. | In 1793, the Chinese emperor Qianlong rebuffed Britain’s request that China rescind or loosen restrictions on trade. |
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1. | Chinese authorities had controlled and limited European activities for centuries |
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2. | by 1912, Chinese empire had collapsed, became a weak junior member in European-dominated world |
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B. | The Crisis Within |
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1. | China was, to a large degree, the victim of its own success |
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a. | population had grown from about 100 million in 1685 to some 430 million in 1853 |
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b. | but China didn’t have an accompanying Industrial Revolution |
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c. | growing pressure on the land, impoverishment, starvation |
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2. | Chinese bureaucracy did not keep pace with growing population |
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a. | by 1800, county magistrates had to deal with four times as many people as in 1400 |
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b. | central state gradually lost control of provincial officials and gentry |
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3. | bandit gangs and peasant rebellions became common |
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4. | culmination of China’s internal crisis: the Taiping Uprising |
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a. | affected much of China 1850–1864 |
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b. | leader Hong Xiuquan (1814–1864) proclaimed himself the younger brother of Jesus, sent to establish a “heavenly kingdom of great peace” |
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c. | called for radical equality |
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d. | even planned to industrialize China |
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e. | Taiping forces established their capital at Nanjing (1853) |
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f. | armies mobilized by provincial gentry crushed the rebellion by 1864 |
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5. | resolution of the Taiping rebellion consolidated the power of the provincial gentry landowners even more |
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a. | intense conservatism, so China’s problems weren’t resolved |
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b. | the massive civil war had seriously weakened the Chinese economy |
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c. | 20 million–30 million people died in the rebellion |
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C. | Western Pressures |
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1. | the Opium Wars show the transformation of China’s relationship with Europe |
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a. | opium had been used on a small scale in China for centuries |
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b. | British began to sell large quantities of Indian opium in China |
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c. | Chinese authorities recognized the dangers of opium addiction, tried to stop the trade |
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d. | European merchants bribed officials to smuggle opium in |
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e. | China suffered a specie drain from large quantities of silver spent on opium |
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f. | 1836: the emperor decided to suppress the trade |
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2. | the British responded with the first Opium War (1839–1842), which they won decisively |
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a. | war was ended by Treaty of Nanjing (1842), which imposed restrictions on Chinese sovereignty and opened five ports to European traders |
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b. | forced Chinese to accept free trade and “proper” relations among countries |
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3. | second Opium War (1856–1858) |
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a. | Europeans vandalized the imperial Summer Palace |
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b. | more treaty ports were opened to foreigners |
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c. | China was opened to foreign missionaries |
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d. | Western powers were given the right to patrol some of China’s interior waterways |
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e. | Chinese were forbidden to use the character for “barbarians” to refer to the British in official documents |
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4. | China was also defeated by the French (1885) and the Japanese (1895) and lost control of Vietnam, Korea, and Taiwan |
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5. | Qing dynasty was deeply weakened at a time when China needed a strong government to deal with modernization |
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6. | “unequal treaties” inhibited China’s industrialization |
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D. | The Failure of Conservative Modernization |
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1. | the Chinese government tried to act against problems |
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a. | policy of “self-strengthening” in 1860s and 1870s |
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b. | application of traditional Confucian principles, along with very limited borrowing from the West |
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c. | efforts to improve examination system |
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d. | restoration of rural social and economic order |
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e. | establishment of some modern arsenals and shipyards, some study of other languages and sciences |
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f. | foundation of a few industrial factories | ||||
2. | conservative leaders feared that development would harm the landlord class |
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3. | Boxer uprising (1900): militia organizations killed many Europeans and Chinese Christians, besieged foreign embassies in Beijing |
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a. | Western powers and Japan occupied Beijing to crush the revolt |
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b. | imposed massive reparation payments on China |
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4. | growing number of educated Chinese became disillusioned with the Qing dynasty |
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a. | organizations to examine the situation and propose reforms |
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b. | growing drive for a truly unified nation in which more people took part in public life |
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c. | Chinese nationalism was against both foreign imperialists and the foreign Qing dynasty |
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5. | the government agreed to some reforms in the early twentieth century, but not enough—the imperial order collapsed in 1911 |
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IV. | The Ottoman Empire and the West in the Nineteenth Century |
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A. | Both China and the Ottoman Empire: |
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1. | had felt that they did not need to learn from the West |
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2. | avoided direct colonial rule, but were diminished |
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3. | attempted “defensive modernization” |
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4. | suffered a split in society between modernists and those holding traditional values |
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B. | “The Sick Man of Europe” |
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1. | 1750: the Ottoman Empire was still strong, at center of the Islamic world; by 1900, was known as “the sick man of Europe” |
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2. | region by region, Islamic world fell under Christian rule, and the Ottomans couldn’t prevent it |
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a. | Ottomans lost territory to Russia, Britain, Austria, and France |
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b. | Napoleon’s 1798 invasion of Egypt was especially devastating |
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c. | Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Rumania attained independence |
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3. | central Ottoman state had weakened |
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a. | provincial authorities and local warlords gained more power, limited the government’s ability to raise money |
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b. | the Janissaries had become militarily ineffective |
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4. | the economy was hit hard by Western developments |
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a. | Europeans achieved direct access to Asia |
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b. | cheap European manufactured goods harmed Ottoman artisans |
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c. | foreign merchants won immunity from Ottoman laws and taxes |
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d. | government came to rely on foreign loans to finance economic development efforts |
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5. | had reached a state of dependency on Europe |
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C. | Reform and Its Opponents |
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1. | Ottomans attempted ambitious reforms, going considerably further than the Chinese |
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a. | didn’t have an internal crisis on the scale of China |
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b. | did not have to deal with explosive population growth |
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c. | rulers were Turkic and Muslim, not like foreign Qing |
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2. | late eighteenth century: Selim III tried to establish new military and administrative structures |
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a. | sent ambassadors to study European methods |
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b. | imported European advisers |
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c. | established technical schools |
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3. | Selim III’s modest reforms stirred up so much hostility among the ulama and the Janissaries that he was deposed in 1807 |
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4. | after 1839: more far-reaching reformist measures (Tanzimat, or “reorganization”) emerged |
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a. | beginning of an extensive process of industrialization and modernization |
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b. | acceptance of the principle that all citizens are equal before the law |
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c. | tide of secular legislation and secular schools |
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5. | supporters of reform saw the Ottoman Empire as a secular state |
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a. | reform created a new class of writers, etc.—the “Young Ottomans” |
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b. | urged creation of a constitutional regime |
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c. | Islamic modernism: accepted Western technology and science but not its materialism |
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6. | Sultan Abd al-Hamid (r. 1876–1909) accepted a new constitution in 1876 that limited the sultan’s authority |
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a. | almost immediately suspended it |
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b. | turned to decisive autocracy in the face of a Russian invasion |
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7. | opposition coalesced around the “Young Turks” (military and civilian elites) |
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a. | advocated a militantly secular public life |
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b. | shift to thinking in terms of a Turkish national state |
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8. | after 1900, growing efforts to define a Turkish national character |
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9. | military coup (1908) gave the Young Turks real power |
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a. | antagonized non-Turkic peoples in the Ottoman Empire |
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b. | stimulated Arab and other nationalisms |
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c. | the Ottoman Empire completely disintegrated after World War I |
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D. | Outcomes: Comparing China and the Ottoman Empire |
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1. | by 1900, both China and the Ottoman Empire were “semicolonies” |
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2. | both gave rise to a new nationalist conception of society |
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3. | China: the imperial system collapsed in 1911 |
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a. | followed by a vast revolution |
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b. | creation of a communist regime by 1949, within the same territory |
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4. | Ottoman Empire: the empire collapsed following World War I |
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5. | Chinese revolutionaries rejected Confucian culture much more than Turkish leaders rejected Islam |
V. | The Japanese Difference: The Rise of a New East Asian Power |
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A. | Japan was forced to open up to more “normal” relations with the world by U.S. commodore Matthew Perry in 1853. |
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1. | 1853–1900: radical transformation of Japanese society |
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2. | Japan became powerful, modern, united, industrialized |
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3. | Japan created its own East Asian empire |
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B. | The Tokugawa Background |
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1. | Tokugawa shoguns had ruled since about 1600 |
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a. | main task was preventing civil war among rival feudal lords (the daimyo) |
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b. | Japan enjoyed internal peace from 1600 to 1850 |
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c. | daimyo were strictly regulated but retained considerable autonomy |
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d. | Japan wasn’t unified by a single law, currency, or central authority that reached to the local level |
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e. | hierarchical society: samurai at the top, then peasants, artisans, and merchants at the bottom |
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2. | considerable change in Japan in the Tokugawa period |
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a. | samurai evolved into a bureaucratic/administrative class |
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b. | great economic growth, commercialization, and urban development |
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c. | by 1750, Japan was perhaps the world’s most urbanized country |
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d. | high literacy rates (40 percent of males, 15 percent of females) |
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e. | change made it impossible for the shogunate to freeze society |
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3. | corruption was widespread |
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C. | American Intrusion and the Meiji Restoration |
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1. | U.S. sent Commodore Perry in 1853 to demand better treatment for castaways, right to refuel and buy provisions, and the opening of trade ports |
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2. | the shogunate gave into Perry’s demands, triggering a civil war |
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3. | in 1868, a group of young samurai from the south took over |
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a. | they claimed to be restoring the 15-year-old emperor Meiji to power |
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b. | aimed to save Japan from foreigners by transformation of Japanese society rather than by resistance |
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4. | the West wasn’t as interested in Japan as it was in China |
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D. | Modernization Japanese Style |
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1. | first task was creating national unity |
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a. | attacked power and privileges of the daimyo and the samurai |
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b. | dismantled the Confucian-based social order |
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c. | almost all Japanese became legally equal |
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2. | widespread interest in many aspects of the West, from science to hairstyles |
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a. | official missions were sent to the West |
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b. | hundreds of students studied abroad |
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c. | translation of Western books into Japanese |
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3. | eventually settled down to more selective borrowing from the West |
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4. | feminism and Christianity made little progress |
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5. | Shinto was raised to the level of a state cult |
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6. | state-guided industrialization program |
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a. | established model factories, opened mines, built railroads, created postal, telegraph, and banking systems |
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b. | many state enterprises were then sold to private investors |
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c. | accomplished modernization without acquiring foreign debt |
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d. | by the early twentieth century, Japan’s industrialization was organized around large firms called zaibatsu |
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7. | society paid a heavy price |
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a. | many peasant families were impoverished |
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b. | countryside suffered infanticide, sale of daughters, and famine |
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c. | early urban workers received harsh treatment |
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d. | efforts to organize unions were repressed |
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E. | Japan and the World |
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1. | by the early twentieth century, Western powers readjusted treaties in Japan’s favor |
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2. | Japanese empire building |
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a. | wars against China (1894–1895) and Russia (1904–1905) |
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b. | gained colonial control of Taiwan and Korea, won a foothold in Manchuria |
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3. | Japan’s rise was widely admired |
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4. | Japan’s colonial policies were at least as brutal as European ones |
VI. | Reflections: Success and Failure in History |
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A. | We must be very careful in applying ideas of “success” and “failure” to historical complexities. |
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1. | much depends on the criteria we apply |
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2. | need to consider the issue of “success for whom?” |
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3. | historical actors are never completely free in making decisions and lack the benefit of hindsight |