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AP Exam Tip
®
When you have to calculate percentages on the exam
make sure you always include units and “× 100.” 0.55 is
a ratio. 55% is a percentage. To convert them you need
Original field to show this in your set up.
mouse population. scientists and philosophers. However, the concept
®
Teaching the AP Tip of evolution by natural selection did not become
synthesized into a unifying theory until two sci-

13-2 How can evolution occur over short and long (10 minutes) For more practice entists, Alfred Wallace (1823–1913) and Charles
Darwin (1809–1882), independently put the vari-
TEACH by highlighting the material on the page in a variety of using percentages, assign students Kale ous pieces together.

timescales?

Broccoli
Cabbage
Handout 13.2: Calculating Percent-
Of the two scientists, Charles Darwin is perhaps
Cauliflower
PRACTICE
ways that speaks to all your students. River arises, splitting Evolution can occur over short and ages described on page 144. the better known. At age 22, he became the natu-
long time scales by natural and
ralist on board HMS Beagle, a British survey ship
Data Analysis (SP5)
that sailed around the world from 1831 to 1836.
the population. artificial selection During his journey, Darwin made many observa-
(30 minutes) Use the Data Nuggets tions of trait variation across a wide diversity of
As we have seen, microevolution is happening all around species, both wild species and the many varieties of
Copyright 2023 BFW Publishers. Pages Not Final. For Review Purposes Only. Do Not Share.
resource titled “How the Cricket Lost Its
us, from the breeding of agricultural crops, to the uninten- domesticated plants and animals that humans had
Song—Part I/Graph Type A, Level 3” to
tional evolution of drug-resistant bacteria in hospitals, to the bred. In addition to observing living organisms, he
reinforce concepts pertaining to natural
bottle neck that reduced genetic variation in the cheetah. Brussels sprouts Ancestor: Kohlrabi found fossil evidence of a large number of extinct
But how do we move from the evolution of genetically dis-
selection and research design. Uni
Discussion starters help ignite t 2 Wild mustard species. He recognized that organisms produce
tinct populations of a species to the evolution of genetically
many more offspring than are needed to replace
Web Resources contains a link to this
student interest in important topics and FIGURE 13.2 Artificial selection on plants. Plant breeders have produced the parents, and that most of these offspring do not
distinct species? That is, how do we move from microevo-
“Reading Graphs” at the end of the book to learn more the plant’s root system; the plant, in turn, supplies the bacte- lution to macroevolution? In this section, we examine two a wide range of edible plants from a single species of wild mustard. survive. Darwin questioned why, out of all the spe-
FIRST PASS
resource. The activity presents a research
about reading a graph like this one.) The current scientific ria with sugars it produces via photosynthesis. Over many generations, each often lead to lively classroom debate. fried_es3e_15_04_1504 - February 7, 2018 cies that had once existed on Earth, only a small
TEACH
common speciation processes and then examine how new
population evolves independently.
study of Pacific field crickets in Hawaii
evidence is that the increase in atmospheric CO 2 during the Nitrogen fixation can also occur through two abiotic species can evolve over short and long timescales. food crops, including cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussels fraction had survived. Similarly, he wondered why, among all
Discussion Starter
last two centuries is caused by human activities. The increase pathways. N 2 can be fixed in the atmosphere by lightning that have lost their ability to produce sprouts, kale, and kohlrabi, shown in FIGURE 13.2. the offspring produced in a population in a given year, only
(5 minutes) Ask students: How does
in global temperatures due to humans producing more green-
(a) Loblolly pine: current (b) Loblolly pine: predicted or during combustion processes such as fires and the burn- mating signals to attract females. In As useful as artificial selection has been to humans, it can a small fraction survived to the next year. During the decades
environmental change determine species
distribution distribution in 2100 ing of fossil fuels. These processes convert N 2 into nitrate Allopatric Speciation following his voyage, he developed his ideas into a robust the-
house gases is known as global warming. Global warming
the activity students will identify the
−
is a major concern among environmental scientists and policy (NO 3 ), which is carried to Earth’s surface in precipitation, One common way in which evolution creates new species also produce a number of unintended results. For exam- ory. His On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection,
distribution? When does it lead to
Abundance
FIGURE 11.5 Shifting biome boundaries with global climate
extinction? (Because species are adapted
makers. We will discuss this in much greater detail in Unit 9. where it is then usable by plants. Humans have developed TEACH research hypothesis, aspects of the ple, farmers often use herbicides to kill weeds. However, as

No data Lesser Greater change. On the southwest tip of Australia there is a small area to a particular environment, changes in is through geographic isolation, which means the physi- we cover larger and larger areas with herbicides, there is an published in 1859, changed the way people thought about
techniques for nitrogen fixation into ammonia or nitrate to
of woodland/shrubland biome which is home to plants in the cal separation of a group of individuals from others of the

FIGURE 11.4 Predicting future species distributions. Based genus Banksia Due to global climate change, the shifting envi- their environment will lead to changes research design, and make some basic increasing chance that at least one weed will possess a muta- the natural world. The key ideas of Darwin’s theory of evolu-
.
be used in plant fertilizers. Although these processes require
on our knowledge of the niche requirements of the loblolly pine ronmental conditions in this region over the next 60 years are Teaching Tip same species. The process of speciation that occurs with tion that allows it to survive the herbicide application. If that tion by natural selection are the following:
calculations based on the data from the
a great deal of energy, humans now fix more nitrogen than
tree, we can predict how the distributions might change as a going to make it harder for the plants to survive, resulting in two- in species distribution. Species may geographic isolation is known as allopatric speciation
4-2 How does nitrogen cycle within ecosystems?
result of future changes in environmental conditions. (Data from thirds of the species declining in abundance and one-fourth of go extinct if they cannot adapt to the (30 minutes) Help students remember one mutant plant passes on its herbicide resistance to its off- • Individuals produce an excess of offspring.
is fixed in nature. The development of synthetic nitrogen

research. They will then make a claim , meaning

https://www.fs.fed.us/nrs/atlas/tree/v3/131) the species going extinct. (Phil Morley/AGE Fotostock) changes quickly enough, if there is not (from the Greek allos, meaning “other,” and patris spring, we will have artificially selected for herbicide resis-
Eventually, the two populations
fertilizers has led to increases in crop yields, particularly for
based on the research and support it with
“fatherland”). As sho
become genetically distinct.
The nitrogen cycle includes many crops such as corn that require large amounts of nitrogen. the processes and products of the wn in FIGURE 13.9 , geographic isola- tance in that weed. This process is occurring in many parts • Not all offspring can survive.
a more favorable environment close by
tion can occur when a subset of individuals from a larger
evidence.
of the world where increased use of popular herbicides has
• Individuals differ in their traits.
chemical transformations
population colonizes a new area of habitat that is physi-
substantial challenges will shift their distributions as global There are several reasons why species might go extinct where they can move, or if biotic factors nitrogen cycle by using the mnemonic led to the evolution of several species of herbicide-resistant • Differences in traits can be passed on from parents to
Nitrification
in the more favorable region prohibit the
climate change occurs or, if they cannot shift, how their when there are substantial changes in the environmental FixNAAD ANPAN, which stands for
cally separated from that larger population. For example, a
populations may be impacted. conditions. First, there may be no favorable environment species from thriving.) weeds. A similar process has occurred in hospitals, where the offspring.
Another step in the nitrogen cycle is nitrification, which is
Nitrogen is used to form amino acids, the building blocks of + − nitrogen fixation, nitrification, assimi- use of antibiotics and antibacterial cleaners has caused artificial
single large population of field mice might be split into two
TRM Unit 2 Web Resources
close enough to which they can move to match their eco-

the conversion of ammonium (NH 4 ) into nitrite (NO 2 )
smaller populations as geographic barriers change over time.
proteins, and nucleic acids, the building blocks of DNA and
AP ® Exam Tip logical tolerance. For example, a small area of land on the − lation, ammonification, denitrification, selection of harmful drug-resistant bacteria. These examples • Differences in traits are associated with differences in
and then into nitrate (NO 3 ). These conversions are con-
southwest coast of Australia experiences a current climate
the ability to survive and reproduce.
RNA. Because so much of it is required, nitrogen is often a A river might change course and divide a large prairie into underscore the importance of understanding the mechanisms
ducted by specialized species of bacteria. Although nitrite
The AP ® Environmental Science Exam includes various that supports a woodland/shrubland biome (see Figure 2.9 ammonium, nitrates, proteins, ammo-
limiting nutrient for plants and algae. A limiting nutrient
on Page 36 ). This biome is surrounded by a large desert
two halves, a large lake might split into two smaller lakes, or
models such as data tables, graphs, and other info- is not used by most plants and algae, nitrate is readily used. TEACH of evolution and the ways in which humans can either pur- FIGURE 13.3 shows how this process works using the exam-
is a nutrient required for the growth of an organism but
a new mountain range could rise. In such cases, the genetic
graphics. Practice analyzing various graphs and data biome to the north and east and an ocean to the south and nium, and nitrogen. Make sure to remind posefully or inadvertently direct the evolution of organisms. ple of body size in a group of crustaceans known as amphi-
west. If scientists are right in predicting that the coming
tables so that you are comfortable gathering data, rec- composition of the isolated populations might diverge over pods. We can begin with parents producing offspring that
available in a lower quantity than other nutrients. The pres-
Assimilation
Common Misconception
ognizing trends, and making predictions. century will bring a hotter and drier climate to southwest- students that ammonification is a specific
ern Australia, then the unique species of plants that live in
ence of a limiting nutrient, such as nitrogen, constrains the Once plants or algae take up nitrogen in the form of ammo- time, either because of random processes — such as the vary in their body size. The largest offspring are consumed by
Later, even if the river dries up
this small biome will have nowhere to go where they can
growth of plants and algae. Adding other nutrients, such as nia, ammonium, nitrite, or nitrate, they incorporate the type of mineralization, so either term can Evolution by Natural Selection fish because fish prefer to eat large prey rather than small prey.
founder effect — or because natural selection favors different
(5 minutes) Many students believe that
survive within their range of ecological tolerance. Scien-
and the two populations come
water or phosphorus, will not improve their growth. into contact, they may no be applied to this step where decom- As a result, the smaller offspring are left to reproduce. Because
adaptations on each side of the barrier.
element into their tissues in a process called assimilation.
11-3 How can environmental change cause tists have closely investigated one plant genus in this biome longer be able to interbreed. natural selection is directed by the desire Evolution also takes place through natural mechanisms. In

( Banksia ) that contains more than 100 species ( FIGURE 11.5 ).
If the two separated habitats differ in environmental con-
species extinctions? When herbivores feed on the plants and algae, some of the posers break down organic matter. Have evolution by natural selection, the environment deter- body size is, in part, determined by an individual’s genes, the
The Nitrogen Cycle Over the next 60 years, they predict that two-thirds of the ditions, such as temperature, precipitation, or the occurrence mines which individuals survive and reproduce. Members of next generation of amphipods will be smaller. This process
of a population to improve. While natural
species will decline in abundance and one-fourth of the
nitrogen is assimilated into the tissues of the herbivores
Environmental change beyond a species will go extinct. while the rest is eliminated as waste products. students complete a chart like the one a population naturally vary in their traits, and certain com- continues over many generations and over time the fish will
FIGURE 13.9 Allopatric speciation. Geographic barriers can
of predators, natural selection will favor different phenotypes
selection is not random, it is also not
shown in Handout 4.1: The Processes
In situations where there is an alternative favorable envi-
The nitrogen cycle is the movement of nitrogen around the
species’ ecological tolerance can ronment to which a species can move, it may already be split populations. Natural selection may favor different traits in binations of those traits make individuals better able to sur- cause the evolution of smaller body sizes in amphipods.
biosphere among reservoir sources and sinks. As nitrogen moves
Mineralization
and Products of the Nitrogen Cycle.
cause species extinctions occupied by other species against which the moving pop- the environment of each isolated population, resulting in differ- purposeful. Individuals with a trait that vive and reproduce. As a result, the genes that produce those Both artificial and natural selection begin with the require-

is favorable under the current conditions

through an ecosystem, it experiences many chemical transfor- ent adaptations. Over time, the two populations may become so Allopatric speciation The process of speciation that occurs ment that individuals vary in their traits and that these varia-

ulations cannot successfully compete. For example, the pre-
Eventually, organisms die and their tissues decompose. In a pro-
Understanding the concept of ecological tolerance helps us dicted northern movement of the loblolly pine, shown in genetically distinct that they are no longer capable of interbreeding. with geographic isolation. traits are more common in the next generation.
mations. FIGURE 4.4 shows the five major transformations in the
allows the individual to survive and repro-
cess called mineralization, fungal and bacterial decomposers
understand how changes in the environment can cause spe- Figure 11.4b might not happen if another pine tree spe- TRM Handout 4.1: The Processes and Prior to the mid-nineteenth century, the idea that species tions are capable of being passed on to the next generation. In
,
nitrogen cycle: nitrogen fixation, nitrification, assimilation, min-
cies to start performing poorly and eventually going extinct. cies in the northern United States is a better competitor could evolve over time had been suggested by a number of both cases, parents produce more offspring than necessary to
break down the organic matter found in dead bodies and waste
duce better and therefore pass on more
eralization, and denitrification. Unlike the carbon cycle, most
If environmental conditions change, any species that cannot and prevents the loblolly pine from surviving in that area. Products of the Nitrogen Cycle replace themselves, and some of these offspring either do not
products and convert these organic compounds back into
adapt to the change or move to more favorable environ- There may also be herbivores that live in the north that ModUle 13 ■ Adaptations 145
reservoirs hold nitrogen for relatively short periods of time.
ments will eventually go extinct. Throughout Earth’s his- will consume loblolly pine to such an extent that it cannot + copies of its genes than individuals that survive or do not reproduce. But in the case of artificial selec-
inorganic compounds such as ammonium (NH 4 ). Because
tory, there have been major environmental changes which expand its geographic range. This underscores the impor- are less favored in that environment. Help Evolution by natural selection The process in which tion, humans decide which individuals will breed, based on
Nitrogen Fixation
this process produces ammonium, the process of mineraliza-
have caused large number of extinctions. In fact, 99 percent tance of not only considering ecological tolerance and a the environment determines which individuals survive and those individuals that possess the traits that tend toward some
tion is sometimes called ammonification. The ammonium
of the species that have ever lived on Earth are now extinct. species’ fundamental niche, but also the importance of biotic students avoid words like “want,” “need,” reproduce.
While Earth’s atmosphere is 78 percent nitrogen by volume,
making it the largest nitrogen reservoir, the vast majority of that and “try” when describing the process of predetermined human goal, such as a curly coat or large body
ModUle 11
nitrogen is in the form of nitrogen gas, which most plants and ■ Ecological Tolerance 125 03_FriedlandRelyea4e_40928_Unit 2_094_171.indd 145 25/01/23 4:17 PM
algae cannot use. However, nitrogen fixation is a process that Global warming The increase in global temperatures due to evolution. TEACH 140 UNIT 2 ■ The Living World: Biodiversity
humans producing more greenhouse gases.
converts nitrogen gas (N 2 ) in the atmosphere into forms of nitro-
gen that plants and algae can use. As you can see in Figure 4.4, Limiting nutrient A nutrient required for the growth of an Dig Deeper
organism but available in a lower quantity than other nutrients.
25/01/23 4:15 PM
03_FriedlandRelyea4e_40928_Unit 2_094_171.indd 125 reproduceable version of the questions without Have students complete the following:
®
Teaching the AP Tip
nitrogen fixation can occur through biotic or abiotic processes. Nitrogen cycle The movement of nitrogen around the
the answers.
• A line graph is used to display data
In the biotic process, a few species of bacteria can con- biosphere among reservoir sources and sinks. Students are not required to know the terms
• A scatterplot is useful when researchers want
(15 minutes) The appendix “Reading Graphs” ), which is rapidly that occurs_______________ (as a “allopatric” and “sympatric.” However, these 25/01/23 4:16 PM
03_FriedlandRelyea4e_40928_Unit 2_094_171.indd 140
vert N 2 gas directly into ammonia (NH 3 Nitrogen fixation The process that converts nitrogen gas • Breeding tigers in zoos and releasing them
illustrates the major type of graphs environmental to look at the relationship____________ sequence of measurements over time PRACTICE
+
converted to ammonium (NH 4 ), a form that is readily
in the atmosphere (N 2 ) into forms of nitrogen that plants and
scientists use and examples students should be (between two variables.) or space.) terms will help students understand the pro- into the wild is the only way to ensure tiger
algae can use.
used by plants and algae. Nitrogen-fixing organisms include
familiar with for the AP Environmental Science • A researcher is collecting data to answer the • A researcher is collecting data to cesses that lead to speciation over short- and survival.
®
Text Analysis (SP3)
cyanobacteria (also known as blue-green algae) and cer-
+
Nitrification The conversion of ammonia (NH 4 ) into nitrite
Exam. Introduce students to scatterplots and line following questions. Which one would use a answer the following questions.
−
−
tain bacteria that live within the roots of legumes, which (NO 2 ) and then into nitrate (NO 3 ). long-time scales and the role of geographic
graphs with the following exercise. Examples scatterplot to represent the data? Which one would use a line graph to (15 minutes) This is a good time for students to • Explain how conservation managers can
include plants such as peas, beans, and a few species of trees. Assimilation A process by which plants and algae
of the remaining graphs are introduced in (a) What is the relationship between soil represent the data? isolation in the development of new species. This
Nitrogen-fixing organisms use the fixed nitrogen to synthe- incorporate nitrogen into their tissues. spiral back to Module 10, Island Biogeography, increase genetic diversity in areas where
subsequent modules, and it is a great resource nitrogen availability and corn plant height? (a) What is the relationship between foundational understanding will be applied again
size their own tissues, then excrete any excess. Cyanobac- Mineralization The process by which fungal and bacterial
to reference again. (b) What is the change in corn plant height dietary fat intake and heart disease? and practice a writing prompt on their own. Ask tigers have lost much of their habitat.
teria, which are primarily aquatic organisms, excrete excess decomposers break down the organic matter found in dead in Unit 9 Global Change when students are asked
Ask students to read the description of a
throughout the growing season? (a)
(b) How has fat consumption per
ammonium ions into the water, where they can be taken bodies and waste products and convert these organic students to read “Diverse Gene Pool Critical for (Managers can create habitat corridors to
scatter plot on page App-1 and study Figure A.1. compounds back into inorganic compounds, such as inorganic to explain how human activities affect biodiversity
person changed since 1950? (b)
Ask students to read the description of a line
up by aquatic plants and algae. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria that ammonium (NH 4 ). Also known as ammonification. Tigers’ Survival.” Unit 2 Web Resources con- connect isolated tiger habitat islands, which
+
Have students complete the following.
graph on page A.0 and study Figure A.2.
live within plant roots excrete excess ammonium ions into TRM Handout 11.1: Reading Graphs and strategies to combat the problem. tains a link to the article. After reading the article, will lead to migration of tigers from one island
Handout 11.1: Reading Graphs contains a
ask them the following questions: to another and result in more genetic diversity
MODULE 4 ■ The Carbon and Nitrogen Cycles 55 in the offspring, which increases the likelihood
Module 11 Ecological Tolerance 125 • Which of the following statements best
identifies the authors claim? of beneficial traits and decreases the likelihood
Module 13 Adaptations
• Increasing genetic diversity and gene flow is 145 of harmful traits.)
02_FriedlandRelyea4e_40928_Unit 1_002_093.indd 55 14/10/22 10:16 PM more important than increasing population TRM Unit 2 Web Resources
numbers to increase tiger survival.
®
®
Teaching the AP Tips correspond to the AP Teaching Tips are placed strategically throughout each
Unit 2 The Living World: Biodiversity
140
Exam Tips in the student edition. This feature provides module to provide suggestions for how to drive home
particularly important or interesting topics with your
suggestions and activities to make sure students learn the students.
content highlighted in the tip.
Common Misconceptions alert you to topics that
The TRM icon indicates that a handout accompanies may require additional attention.
the activity. Handout files contain student and teacher
versions of activity instructions, discussion questions, or Dig Deeper highlights content from the student
practice problems. If you are using the TE-book, click on edition that is valuable for students of Environmental
the icon to open and download the handout. Science to know, but will not be tested on the exam.
Module 4 The Carbon and Nitrogen Cycles 55
Features of the Teacher’s Edition TE-xv
01_friedlandrelyeaTE4e_47542_FM_i_liii.indd 15 27/01/23 1:10 PM