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(Zubieta et al., 2003). Others, who carry a mutated gene that disrupts pain circuit neuro-
transmission, may not experience pain (Cox et al., 2006). Such discoveries point the way
TEACH 1.6-13 toward future pain medications that can mimic these genetic effects.
Pain is not merely a physical phenomenon of injured nerves sending impulses to a
Teaching Tip definable brain or spinal cord area — like pulling on a rope to ring a bell. The brain can also
Explain to your students that phantom create pain, as it does in phantom limb sensations. When it lacks the normal sensory input
from a missing limb, the brain may misinterpret and amplify spontaneous but irrelevant
limb sensations occur when a person central nervous system activity. As the dreamer sees with eyes closed, so 7 in 10 people
feels the presence of a limb after it has who have undergone limb amputation feel pain or movement in their nonexistent limbs
been lost or removed. Invite a surgeon (Melzack, 1992, 2005). Some may even try to lift a cup with a phantom hand, or step off a
bed onto a phantom leg. Even those born without a limb sometimes perceive sensations
who specializes in amputations to visit from the absent arm or leg; the brain comes prepared to anticipate “that it will be getting
the class and discuss how doctors information from a body that has limbs” (Melzack, 1998).
Phantoms may haunt other senses, too. People with hearing loss often experience
Reinhold Matay/AP Photo by vibrating air molecules but is accompanied by auditory brain activity (Sedley et al.,
treat patients with phantom limb pain the sound of silence. Tinnitus, the phantom sound of ringing in the ears, is not produced
and sensations.
2015). People who lose vision to glaucoma, cataracts, diabetes, or macular degeneration
Others who have nerve damage in the tasting and smelling systems have experienced
Distracted from the pain After a may experience phantom sights — nonthreatening hallucinations (Painter et al., 2018).
CONNECT 1.6-13 tackle in the first half of a competitive phantom tastes or smells, such as ice water that seems sickeningly sweet or fresh air that
game, Mohammed Ali Khan (here
Distributed by Bedford, Freeman & Worth Publishers. Not for redistribution.
playing for BK Häcken in white) said reeks of rotten food (Goode, 1999). The point to remember: We feel, see, hear, taste, and
Point out to students that there are he “had a bit of pain” but thought it smell with our brain.
psychological influences on pain. was “just a bruise.” With his attention
focused on the game, he played on. In
Pain can be remembered differently the second half, he was surprised to Psychological Influences
learn that his leg was broken.
depending on our mood, accord- One powerful influence on our perception of pain is the attention we focus on it. Athletes,
focused on winning, may perceive pain differently and play through it. Injured soldiers,
ing to mood-congruent memory. As caught up in battle, may feel little or no pain until they reach safety.
described in Module 2.6, if we are in We also seem to edit our memories of pain, which often differ from the pain we actu-
a good mood when we experience ® ally experienced. In experiments, and after painful medical procedures or childbirth, people
overlook a pain’s duration. Instead, their memory snapshots record two factors: their pain’s
pain, our memories of it may not be AP Science Practice peak moment (which can lead them to recall variable pain, with peaks, as worse [Chajut
negative. Research et al., 2014; Stone et al., 2005]) and how much pain they felt at the end. In one experiment,
In the cold-water experiment people immersed one hand in painfully cold water for 60 seconds, and then the other hand
discussed here, researchers
manipulated the pain experienced in the same painfully cold water for 60 seconds followed by a slightly less painful 30 seconds
(the independent variable), then more (Kahneman et al., 1993). Which experience would you expect they recalled as most
TEACH 1.6-13 measured participants’ preference painful?
for which trial they would rather Curiously, when asked which trial they would prefer to repeat, most preferred the
Active Learning repeat (the dependent variable). 90-second trial, with more net pain — but less pain at the end. Physicians have used this
Can you identify the independent
variable and dependent variable principle with patients undergoing sedation-free colon exams — lengthening the discom-
(20 minutes) The textbook discusses Copyright © Bedford, Freeman & Worth Publishers.
in the chocolate experiment?
fort by a minute but lessening its intensity at the end (Kahneman, 1999). Imagine undergo-
three influences on pain—biological, You can review these important ing a painful procedure and having the doctor ask if you’d rather go home now or bear a few
concepts in Unit 0.
psychological, and social-cultural. In more minutes of milder discomfort. There’s a case to be made for prolonging a tapered hurt.
The end of an experience can color our memory of pleasures, too. In one simple exper-
small groups, ask students to describe iment, some people, on receiving a fifth and last piece of chocolate, were told it was their
each of these influences and come CULTURAL “next” one. Others, told it was their “last” piece, liked it better and rated the whole experi-
up with a unique example for each. AWARENESS ment as more enjoyable (O’Brien & Ellsworth, 2012). Endings matter.
Remember: Take time to address any Our cultural beliefs and traditions Social-Cultural Influences
misinformation that comes up in this influence our experience of pain. Had Pain is a product of our attention, our expectations, and also our culture (Gatchel et al.,
you ever thought about social-cultural
activity. influences on pain? What are some 2007; Reimann et al., 2010). Not surprisingly, then, our perception of pain varies with our
ways your culture might play a role in
your experience of pain? social situation and our cultural traditions. We tend to perceive more pain when others
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146 Unit 1 Biological Bases of Behavior

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